The End Of The Commonwealth Why It Collapsed After Oliver Cromwells Death

The death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658 marked a pivotal turning point in English history, effectively signaling the end of the Commonwealth period. The Commonwealth, established in 1649 after the execution of King Charles I, represented a radical departure from traditional monarchy, embracing republican ideals and parliamentary rule. However, the stability and longevity of this new political order were inextricably linked to the leadership and persona of Oliver Cromwell. To understand why the Commonwealth faltered so quickly after his demise, we must delve into the complex interplay of factors, including Cromwell's personal authority, the inherent weaknesses of the Protectorate government, the deep-seated divisions within English society, and the skillful maneuvering of royalist forces.

The Central Role of Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell's leadership was the keystone of the Commonwealth. A military genius, a devout Puritan, and a pragmatic politician, Cromwell rose to prominence during the English Civil War, leading the Parliamentarian forces to victory against the Royalists. His charisma, decisiveness, and military prowess commanded respect and obedience, both within the army and among many members of Parliament. Cromwell's strong leadership provided the necessary stability for the nascent Commonwealth, navigating the turbulent waters of political and social upheaval. He effectively suppressed Royalist uprisings, quelled radical factions within the Parliamentarian movement, and established a relatively stable, albeit authoritarian, regime. His title, Lord Protector, underscored his central role, a figurehead of power that held the fragile republic together. Without Cromwell's firm hand at the helm, the Commonwealth ship of state was left adrift, vulnerable to the storms of political intrigue and factionalism.

His personal authority, derived from his military achievements and his perceived divine mandate, was crucial in maintaining order and enforcing the laws of the Commonwealth. He commanded the loyalty of the New Model Army, a powerful and disciplined force that served as both a guarantor of domestic peace and a symbol of the Commonwealth's strength. However, this reliance on military power also sowed the seeds of future instability. The army, though loyal to Cromwell, harbored its own political ambitions and grievances, and its immense influence in the affairs of state was a constant source of tension. Cromwell's ability to balance the competing interests of the army, Parliament, and various religious factions was a testament to his political acumen, a skill that his successors sorely lacked.

Cromwell's death created a vacuum of power that no single individual could adequately fill. His son, Richard Cromwell, inherited the title of Lord Protector but lacked his father's charisma, military experience, and political skills. Richard, often referred to as "Tumbledown Dick," was a well-meaning but ultimately ineffectual leader, unable to command the same level of respect and obedience as his father. His weakness further exposed the inherent structural weaknesses of the Protectorate government, a system that relied heavily on the personal authority of the Lord Protector.

The Weaknesses of the Protectorate Government

The Protectorate, established in 1653, was intended to provide a more stable form of government than the earlier Commonwealth, which had been plagued by infighting and instability. The Instrument of Government, the Protectorate's constitution, established a system of shared power between the Lord Protector, the Council of State, and Parliament. However, in practice, the Lord Protector wielded considerable executive authority, particularly in matters of foreign policy and military affairs. This concentration of power in the hands of one individual, while effective under Cromwell's strong leadership, proved to be a significant vulnerability once he was gone.

The Protectorate government, while achieving some successes in foreign policy and economic management, never fully gained the legitimacy and widespread support necessary for its long-term survival. Many people, both Royalists and those who had supported Parliament, viewed the Protectorate as a temporary expedient, a necessary evil to maintain order in the aftermath of the Civil War. The heavy reliance on the army to enforce the government's authority further alienated the civilian population, who resented the presence of soldiers and the restrictions on their liberties. The constant tension between the army and Parliament, each vying for power and influence, undermined the stability of the regime.

Furthermore, the Protectorate struggled to establish a truly representative and inclusive political system. While Parliament was elected, its powers were limited, and Cromwell frequently intervened in its proceedings, dissolving parliaments that challenged his authority. This authoritarian streak, though arguably necessary to maintain order, fueled resentment and opposition, particularly among those who had fought for parliamentary supremacy during the Civil War. The failure to create a broad consensus around the Protectorate government left it vulnerable to collapse once its strong leader was removed from the scene.

Social and Political Divisions

English society in the mid-17th century was deeply divided along political, religious, and social lines. The English Civil War had exacerbated these divisions, creating deep-seated animosities and resentments. The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the Commonwealth had further polarized society, with Royalists yearning for the restoration of the monarchy and many Parliamentarians harboring reservations about the new republican order. These existing social and political divisions made it challenging for the Commonwealth to establish a cohesive national identity and build a lasting consensus around its governance.

Religious divisions were particularly acute. While the Commonwealth officially tolerated a degree of religious diversity, Puritanism was the dominant force, and many Anglicans and Catholics felt marginalized and persecuted. Radical religious sects, such as the Levellers and the Diggers, advocated for more radical social and political reforms, further complicating the political landscape. Cromwell's attempts to strike a balance between religious toleration and maintaining order often satisfied no one, fueling discontent and opposition from various religious groups.

Social divisions also played a significant role. The traditional social hierarchy, with the aristocracy at the top, was disrupted by the Civil War and the rise of new social groups, such as merchants and landowners who had profited from the conflict. The economic policies of the Commonwealth, while generally successful, also created winners and losers, further exacerbating social tensions. The failure to address these deep-seated social and political divisions undermined the Commonwealth's legitimacy and made it more vulnerable to collapse.

Royalist Resurgence

The Royalist cause, though defeated in the Civil War, never truly disappeared. Many Royalists remained in England, secretly plotting and scheming for the restoration of the monarchy. The death of Cromwell and the ensuing political instability provided them with a golden opportunity to revive their cause. Skilled Royalist agents, such as General George Monck, exploited the divisions within the army and Parliament, carefully maneuvering to pave the way for the return of Charles II.

The growing disillusionment with the Protectorate, combined with the skillful propaganda of the Royalists, gradually shifted public opinion in favor of the monarchy. The memory of the chaos and upheaval of the Civil War years faded, and many people yearned for the perceived stability and order of the old regime. The economic hardships experienced by some segments of society under the Commonwealth also fueled discontent and made the prospect of a return to the monarchy more appealing.

General Monck, the commander of the English army in Scotland, played a crucial role in the Restoration. He marched his troops to London, ostensibly to restore order, but in reality, to engineer the return of Charles II. Monck skillfully manipulated the situation, purging Parliament of its most radical members and paving the way for a new Parliament that was overwhelmingly in favor of the monarchy. The Declaration of Breda, issued by Charles II, promised a general amnesty, religious toleration, and the settlement of land disputes, further easing the transition to the Restoration.

The Inevitable Collapse

In conclusion, the Commonwealth's demise following Oliver Cromwell's death in 1658 was not a sudden event but the culmination of a series of interconnected factors. Cromwell's towering personal authority had masked the inherent weaknesses of the Protectorate government and the deep-seated divisions within English society. His death exposed these vulnerabilities, creating a power vacuum that no one could adequately fill. The Royalists, skillfully exploiting the situation, were able to capitalize on the growing discontent and engineer the restoration of the monarchy. The Commonwealth, born out of revolution and upheaval, ultimately succumbed to the weight of its own contradictions and the enduring appeal of the traditional order. The failure of the Commonwealth serves as a cautionary tale about the challenges of establishing a stable and lasting republic in a society deeply divided by political, religious, and social divisions. The legacy of the Commonwealth, however, continued to resonate in English history, shaping the development of parliamentary government and inspiring future generations of reformers and revolutionaries.